ISSN 1935-7699
 |
|
|
ISSN 1935-7699 |
|||
|
||||
|
ARTICLE Maxine Greene:
Influences on the Life and Work of a Dynamic Educator Passionate leader,
visionary, esteemed educator are qualities synonymous with Maxine
Greene. Her influence as a
dynamic educator leads 21st century educational reform.
Greene’s prolific writings inspire passion in others.
In a 2002 article entitled, “The Power of One,” Amy Oringel names
Maxine Greene among teaching’s most revered thinkers.
She is one of the hardest working teachers that this profession
has ever spawned.
While teaching courses in aesthetic education – the process of building
students’ cognition by exposure to the arts – to thousands of students,
Maxine Greene has impacted the next generation of teaching
professionals. She is an
active lecturer and seminar speaker.
Her animated rhetoric makes a room come alive, all of this from a
now frail body of an octogenarian.
Maxine Greene is now
considered a feminist. She
disliked her privileged upbringing, disliking how it consumed her
social-climbing mother. It
was her father who inspired her to break free from what she called an
airless life (Oringel, 2002).
While searching for her life, Greene went to graduate school.
In an early paper, she wrote about the “Philosopher as Man.”
In this paper she stated that teachers should behave like people
– that is, inject themselves into the teaching process (Oringel, 2002).
Being rejected by this early professor, who wanted Greene to
remain objective and neutral, it was this course that influenced her to
enroll in the doctoral program.
Soon, she found herself lecturing to large classrooms as a
teaching assistant. She
believes that she received a good response not from her knowledge, but
from her passion and excitement of the topic.
As a Jewish woman in
academia in the 1950s and ‘60s, Greene was first seen as an intruder.
She held philosophical conversations in the ladies’ lounge at the
faculty club of Teachers College in 1965, since women were not allowed
into the faculty club. An
opening in an English department opened the door for her becoming a
philosopher of education.
When she was hired as a professor for philosophy of education at
Columbia University, Greene found herself in an intellectual minority:
She was an existentialist whose peers subscribed to analytic
philosophy. She maintained
that individual existence takes precedence over abstract, conceptual
essence. In 1973, with the
publication of Teacher as Stranger: Educational Philosophy for the
Modern Age, Greene encouraged teachers to lead their students on
free-form explorations in the classrooms.
Thirty years later, in the publication, Releasing the
Imagination, Greene (1995a or 1995b?) summarizes her message: To help kids shape
their identity, we’ve got to awaken them to their own questions and
encourage them to shape their identity, we’ve got to awaken them to
their own questions and encourage them to create their own projects.
They don’t really learn unless they ask (p. 22) As a philosopher and educator, Greene’s primary research concerns are philosophies of education and social thought, aesthetics and the teaching of the arts, literature as art, and multiculturalism. Greene’s work is prolific, but her texts, Landscapes of Learning (1978), Releasing the Imagination (1995b), and Variations on a Blue Guitar (2001), intertwine aesthetics with the development of imagination and creativity with the role of educational reform. She represents an existentialist approach, as one who believes that humankind exists and defines itself through one’s subjectivity while wandering between choice and freedom. Her views reflect the value placed on individualism, self-creation, and self-definition. For the purpose of this article, it is important to sketch out the influential growth of Maxine Greene, I begin with those philosophers and educators who influenced her. This is not a complete discussion of philosophy, aesthetics, or education, but a brief summary of the philosophers most influential for Maxine Greene with their thoughts and ideas. The summary begins with Jean-Paul Charles Sartre (1905-1980). Sartre’s essay,
“Being and Nothingness; A
Phenomenological Essay on Ontology” (1943) is regarded as the
beginning of existentialism in the 20th century.
His writings set the tone for intellectual life in the decade
immediately after World War II.
Never one to avoid conflict, Sartre (1958) became involved in the
Algerian War, generating deep hostility from the Right to the point that
French Algerian supporters detonated a bomb outside his apartment
building. Sartre’s political
critique took the form of a series of essays, interviews and plays.
His play, The Condemned of
Altona (1959), combined a sense of exploitation (the colonization)
with an expression of moral outrage (racism and oppression of Muslim
population) (Flynn, 2004). This piece, whose chief
protagonist is Frantz, ‘the butcher of Smolensk’, though ostensibly
about the effect of Nazi atrocities at the Eastern front on a post war
industrialist family in Hamburg, is really addressing the question of
collective guilt and the French oppression of the Algerian war for
independence raging at the time.
(Flynn, 2004, p. 14) Sartre’s writing
style often included literary art to convey or even to work through
philosophical thoughts that he had already or would later conceptualize
in his essays and theoretical studies.
This brings out the relationship between imaginative literature
and philosophical work, a writing characteristic also found in Maxine
Greene’s writing style. The
strategy of indirect communication has been a tool of existentialism
since Kierkegaard adapted the use of pseudonyms in his philosophical
writings in the early 19th century (Flynn, 2004). The point is to
communicate a feeling and an attitude that the reader/ spectator adopts
in which certain existentialist themes such as anguish, responsibility
or bad faith are suggested but not dictated as in a lecture. …
The so-called aesthetic "suspension of disbelief" coupled with
the tendency to identify with certain characters and to experience their
plight vicariously conveys conviction rather than information. (Flynn,
2004, p. 14-15) This quotation
explains what existentialism is primarily about, a challenge to
individuals to examine their lives, to heighten their sensitivity to
oppression and exploitation in their world.
Sartre’s (1943) primary purpose was defining consciousness as
transcendent. Greene (1995b)
clarifies and applies Sartre’s thoughts in “Releasing the Imagination”
when she says, Sartre says everybody
experiences a need, that is, a distance between where you are and what
you want. In a fair society,
we have to enable every child to work through that need in pursuit of
his or her own possibility.
If you can enable children to choose projects that are meaningful, the
product in the final analysis will be superior.
(Greene, 1995b, p. 149) The influence Sartre
has on Greene’s future beliefs continues with his theory of aesthetics
from his work on “Being and Nothingness,” possibly an outgrowth from
surviving Nazi oppression.
For Sartre (1943), art held special powers that interact with the
viewer’s senses and the artist’s concept.
The artwork becomes re-created through the viewer’s perceptions.
A social activist, Sartre emphasized the harsh facts of
oppression and exploitation not erased by the World War.
Society becomes based on violence, and the artist, in his view,
has a social responsibility to address the harshness of society.
Greene’s (1973) growth in her sense of community and cultural
influences grew from Husserl (1939), who influenced her belief in the
value of humankind.
Aesthetics then has a moral responsibility and the artist should raise
public awareness. The relationship
between artist and public, Sartre (1943) called gift-appeal.
Artwork has a special power, that of communicating among freedoms
without alienation or objectification.
An example of this special power is in The Psychology of
Imagination (Sartre, 1956). Sartre speaks of a portrait as inviting
the viewer to realize its possibilities by regarding it aesthetically.
Aesthetics for Sartre is an active interaction with an art form
that expresses an idea. It
should cause you to think, to reflect, and to react.
Sartre views the imagination as a picture-consciousness.
This notion comes from Husserl (1939), whose theory of
picture-consciousness animates the absent subject.
Through this animation, the notion of the internal picture or the
image without any material existence functions the same way that the
picture does. Sartre
identified pure fantasy with picture-consciousness and argued that there
are mental pictures at work in fantasy.
Fantasy can have the same structural character as the physical
picture-consciousness. The
mental pictures have physicality.
One cannot touch them as a photograph, but may assume that the
mental image is a picture and, as such, has a material content.
The mental picture is an image, and the theory of the
picture-consciousness defines the theory for imagination as a whole.
This line of thought develops with Maxine Greene to become a part
of her theory of aesthetics. This attitude suggests an aesthetic appreciation for a work of art. What determines a work of art to be a work of art? How does the picture function? In order for the picture to function as a picture, Sartre (1943) calls for an unrealizing attitude in front of it: The viewer must not see the picture as a real thing belonging to real time and space, but it should be removed from real time and space, taking it out of the context of reality and thus removing it from the world. Greene (1973) regards this as a phenomenon and supports an aesthetic appreciation for the work of art when she says, To do philosophy, then, is to become highly conscious of the phenomena and events in the world as it presents itself to consciousness. To do philosophy, as Jean-Paul Sartre says, is to develop a fundamental project, to go beyond the situations one confronts and refuse reality as given in the name of a reality to be produced. (Greene, 1973, p. 7) These examples show that Jean-Paul Sartre influenced Maxine Greene in many ways: to develop an argument using indirect communication shown in the use of literary art to convey ideas later conceptualized and developed in essays of theoretical studies; to see aesthetics and art forms as tools for social activism and with moral responsibility; and in community and cultural influencer. Merleau-Ponty
(1908-1961), a companion of Sartre, developed his theory of aesthetics
within the continental school of philosophy.
He applied the methods of Husserl’s phenomenology to the relation
of mind and body in The
Phenomenology of Perception (1945/1962) and
The Visible and the Invisible
(1964/1968). He diagnosed a
pervasive ambiguity in the character of human life and attributed all
consciousness to pre-reflective sensual awareness of the corporeal.
He tried to overcome the traditional dichotomy between objective
and subjective elements of the human experience.
For Merleau-Ponty (1964/1968), as an existentialist, perception
becomes the primary mode of access to what is real, but unlike many
phenomenologists, he affirms reality as a world that transcends our
consciousness. He disagreed
with dualism, an idea introduced into western thought by Plato, who
claimed that there are actually two worlds, the physical world of
appearances and a higher world of intelligible Forms.
Merleau-Ponty agreed with Aristotle, who held that mind and body
are two aspects of the same thing, the same complete person.
From his work in philosophy, he brought the concept of social
imagination. Later, Greene
adopts this idea and defines it as the capacity to invent
visions of what should be and what might be in our deficient society, on
the streets where we live, in our schools.
As I write of social imagination, I am reminded of Jean-Paul
Sartre’s declaration that “it is on the day that we can conceive of a
different state of affairs that a new light falls on our troubles and
our suffering and that we decide that these are unbearable.” (Sartre,
1943, p. 434-435, as quoted in Greene, 1995b, p. 5) All mental concepts
are socially constructed, and so Merleau-Ponty’s (1964/1968) study of
perception stresses the social stratum to find meanings and the
objective existence of things. He
grows this concept into that of an embodied consciousness.
Later Greene identifies consciousness as something experienced
through time, space, and activity. Our perception ends in
objects, and the object once constituted, appears as the reason for all
the experiences of it which we have had … (Greene, 1973, p. 114) Perception
undergirds cognition: For Merleau-Ponty, the concepts of experience
contextualize within the perception of the individual, while at the same
time opening the wider world to the individual.
This is a dividing point for Sartre (1956) and Merleau-Ponty
(1964/1968). Because Merleau-Ponty
believes that a fundamental element of a subject’s perception is its
perspective character, it is always incomplete and leaves the
possibilities of other perspectives always open.
To clarify, instead of starting with an individual’s experience
and connecting it to others, as Sartre would, Merleau-Ponty begins with
the world and being in the world with others.
He argues that the first perceptions are relations to others.
The meaning of the human world is the recognition beyond
the present milieu of a world of things visible for each ‘I’ under a
plurality of aspects, the taking of indefinite time and space.
(Rasheed, 2002, p. 399) He grows his
thoughts into speech development and cognitive functions.
His aesthetics become a thinking process directly related to
language. Artists are making
a new interpretation of the world, that
does not exist anywhere
– not in things, which as yet have no meaning, nor
in the artist himself, in his unformulated life.
It summons one away from the already constituted reason in which
‘cultured men’ are content to shut themselves, toward a reason which
contains its own origins.
(Greene, 1973, p.115) When he does this,
he creates a successful educational pedagogy that recognizes the role of
possibility, while at the same time considering the historical and
social contexts of intersubjective relationships, a true cultural
studies concept (Rasheed, 2002).
Merleau-Ponty
influenced Greene in concepts of an embodied consciousness.
Individuals socially construct meaning, and the thinking process
has a direct correlation to this social construct.
Aesthetics become a direct link with language and, as Greene
later interprets, aesthetics are a thinking process directly related to
language. Artists interpret
the world in new ways using different language forms.
At this point, it is important to discuss Hannah
Arendt (1906 - 1975). Hannah
Arendt (1958) was one of the leading political thinkers of the 20th
century. She studied briefly
with Edmund Husserl (1939), who influenced her thinking. With the
growing struggles for Jewish people in Nazi Germany, she fled to Paris
in 1933.
In 1941 she again fled,
this time to New York with her husband and mother. New York offered her
a voice, and she soon became part of an influential circle of writers
and intellectuals who gathered around the journal,
Partisan Review.
During the post-war period, she lectured at a number of American
universities, including Princeton, Berkeley and Chicago.
She is most closely associated with the New School for Social
Research, where she was a professor of political philosophy until her
death in 1975. Arendt
(1958) was a stern defender of constitutionalism and the rule of law.
By writing The Human Condition
(1972), Arendt became
known as an advocate of fundamental human rights, among which she
included not only the right to life, liberty, and freedom of expression,
but also the right to action, and opinion.
She was a critic of all forms of political community based on
traditional ties and customs, as well as those based on religious,
ethnic, or racial identity. Two works of Arendt had a major impact both within and outside the academic community. The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951/1973) was a study of the Nazi and Stalinist regimes, which generated a wide-ranging debate on the nature and historical antecedents of totalitarianism. The Human Condition (1958/1972) was originally a philosophical study to investigate the fundamental categories of the vita activa (labor, work, action). In addition to these two important works, Arendt published a number of influential essays on topics such as the nature of revolution, freedom, authority, tradition and the modern age. At the time of her death in 1975, she had completed the first two volumes of her last major philosophical work, The Life of the Mind (1978, published posthumously), which examined the three fundamental faculties of the vita contemplativa (thinking, willing, and judging). It is her theory of action and her revival of the ancient notion of praxis that represent her as one of the most original contributors to twentieth century political thought (Dorn, 1994). By distinguishing action (praxis) from fabrication (poiesis), by linking it to freedom and plurality, and by showing its connection to speech and remembrance, Arendt (1958) is able to articulate a conception of politics in which questions of meaning and identity are addressed in a fresh and original manner. Moreover, by viewing action as a mode of human togetherness, Arendt is able to develop a conception of participatory democracy, which directly contrasts with the bureaucracy so characteristic of the modern societies. Action, the only activity that goes on directly between men without the intermediary of things or matter, corresponds to the human condition of plurality … this plurality is specifically the condition — not only the conditio sine qua non, but the conditio per quam — of all political life. ” (Arendt, 1958, p. 7) Her
influence on Maxine Greene is evident in her professional praxis.
Arendt (1958) taught Greene.
Hannah Arendt (1958) and Maxine Greene (1988) have similar visions of
human freedom and the possibility that there is greater potential in the
creation of a more emancipated school community.
An emancipated school community refers to the sense of democracy
within a school. The
following quotation from William Ayers (2001), a former student of
Greene’s, expands this notion. Education is the point at which we decide whether we love the world enough
to assume responsibility for it and by the same token save it from that
ruin which except for renewal, except for the coming of the new and the
young, would be inevitable…Education is where we decide whether we love
our children enough to expel them from our world and leave them to their
own devices … something unforeseen by us, to prepare them in advance for
the task of renewing a common world. (Ayers, 2001, 1977, p. 196) A synergy exists between their writings, each contributing aspects to the work of the other. Arendt’s and Greene's visions of the public are not blueprints for action but rather perspectives from which to rethink our current practices in education. Arendt’s idea is that we disclose ourselves when we come together. We relate because we are subjective. We choose a particular kind of identity. This identity relates to specific responsibilities and to valuing what surrounds us. Freedom for Arendt
(1958) does not mean the ability to choose among a set of alternatives
(freedom of choice or liberum arbitrium which, according to
Christian doctrine, is given to us by God). By freedom, Arendt means the
capacity to start something new, to do something unexpected.
This idea is rooted in
natality, a belief that each birth represents a new
beginning and the introduction of novelty in the world.
All activities are in some way related to the phenomenon of
natality, because labor and work are both necessary to create and
preserve a world into which new human beings are constantly born.
Arendt clarifies this notion in the following quotation: The new beginning inherent in birth can make itself felt in the world only because the newcomer possesses the capacity of beginning something anew, that is, of acting. (Arendt, 1958, p. 9) Since actions begin with natality, with our very birth comes a capacity to introduce what is totally unexpected. Arendt continues to clarify natality through the nature of new beginnings: It is in the nature of beginning that something new is started which cannot be expected from whatever may have happened before. This character of startling unexpectedness is inherent in all beginnings … The fact that man is capable of action means that the unexpected can be expected from him, that he is able to perform what is infinitely improbable. And this again is possible only because each man is unique, so that with each birth something uniquely new comes into the world. (Arendt, 1958, p. 8) Arendt (1958)
discusses revolutions as examples of modern action.
Her favorite is the American Revolution, because the foundational
act led to the Constitution.
Other examples she used were the French Revolution, the creation of the
Soviets in the Russian Revolution, the French resistance to Hitler in
World War II, and the Hungarian Revolt in 1956: “Revolutions are the
only political events, which confront us directly and inevitably with
the problem of beginning” (Arendt, 1958, p. 21). The individual actions
of men and women create a public space where freedom appears [t]o act in such a way
that the memory of their deeds could become a source of inspiration for
the future. In doing so, according to Arendt, they rediscovered the
truth known to the ancient Greeks that action is the supreme blessing of
human life, that which bestows significance to the lives of individuals.
(d'Entreves, 2006, p. 12) The purpose of this brief synopsis of thoughts and ideas of Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, and Arendt is to envision the richness of ideas in which Maxine Greene grew and developed. While we are straining toward what ought to be, Maxine Greene began to be a visionary and to imagine. Alfred Schutz (1899 – 1959), another teacher of Greene, agreed with Arendt. Both Arendt and Schutz supported Husserl’s ideas of the social world and the social sciences. After serving with an artillery division on the Italian front in World War I, he studied law and social sciences in Vienna with Hans Kelsen and Ludwig von Mises, but it his work in support of Husserl that he is best known. He fled Hitler’s Anschluss of Austria in 1939. In America, Schutz developed his thoughts in relationship to American pragmatism, logical empiricism, and various other fields such as music and literature. According to Schutz (1967), social scientists develop constructs, ideal types, meaning-contexts of lived experience. Schutz responds to the positivist view that social sciences should make use of natural scientific methods, identifying evidence with sensory data that are observable. By the term “wide-awakeness” we want to denote a plane of consciousness of highest tension originating in an attitude of full attention to life and its requirements. Only the performance and especially the working self is fully interested in life and, hence, wide-awake. It lives within its acts and its attention is exclusively directed to carrying its project into effect, to executing its plan. This attention is an active, not a passive one. Passive attention is the opposite of full awareness. (Schutz, 1967, p. 213) Greene (1978) states that the concept of “wide-awakeness” goes beyond ordinary notions of relevance for education; Schutz (1967) points out that a heightened consciousness and reflectiveness are meaningful with respect for human projects and undertakings, not in a withdrawal from the intersubjective world: That wide-awakeness contributes to the creation of the self, if it is indeed the case, as I believe it is, that involvement with the arts and humanities has the potential for provoking precisely this sort of reflectiveness, we need to devise ways of integrating them into what we teach at all levels of the educational enterprise… (Greene, 1978, p. 163) Added to these rich European thoughts comes the American voice and influence of John Dewey (1958) on Maxine Greene. John Dewey (1859 – 1952) is commonly known as the founder of the progressive education movement (Garrison, 1999). His establishment of the University Laboratory School in 1896 gave him a practical venue for active research in education. Several women influenced his development, including his wife, who awakened his ingrained sense of social justice and encouraged his public works. A colleague at the University of Chicago, Ella Flagg Young, practically applied and experimented at the Laboratory School. It is interesting to note that Young was the first woman president of the National Education Association and became superintendent of the Schools of Chicago. The Laboratory School operated alongside Jane Addams and her work at Hull House, for which she received the Nobel Prize. Dewey sought to constantly re-evaluate his thinking and ideas and thought that all people should reconstruct their own thinking several times in the course of their lives (Garrison, 1999, p. 4). Dewey’s theory of education is quite compact. In Democracy and Education, he summarizes education as the process of forming fundamental dispositions both intellectually and emotionally. It is important to realize Dewey’s mindset, that he did not separate thinking and feeling from action. As Garrison summarizes, Dewey is clear that method is not separable from subject matter… ‘Method means that arrangement of subject matter, which makes it most effective in use. Never is method something outside of the material’… The subject matter of the learner is not identical with the formulated, the crystallized and systematized subject matter of the adult…the teacher should be occupied not with subject matter in itself but with its interaction with the pupils’ present needs and capacities…Subject matter alone does not make a good teacher. (Garrison, 1999, p. 10) Dewey and Greene have similar beliefs about the role of a teacher. There should be a connection of the subject matter to the desires and needs of the students. The students’ needs range across different areas, such as the physical and social, and even within a political context. Good teaching should consider the moral responsibility toward society with the cognitive perceptions of the needs and abilities of the students. Dewey, like Greene, sought to break down barriers
between art and the rest of the educational experience by tracing the
continuities between works of art and the human experiences.
Significance is in the ongoing growth process, learning from experience,
or learning by doing. This
is Dewey’s (1954) idea of a transformative, aesthetic experience, and
Maxine Greene has said that John Dewey considered imagination important. In The
Public and Its Problems, Dewey (1954) wrote: The function of art has always been to break through the crust of
conventionalized and routine consciousness. Artists have always been the
real purveyors of the news, for it is not the outward happening in
itself which is new, but the kindling by it of emotion, perception and
appreciation. (p. 86) People need the
freedom to imagine and reflect, which ultimately leads to praxis.
Dewey (1954) sought ways to reach and challenge people to
anticipate aesthetic experience, often using metaphor, and
Maxine Greene builds on his
work. Dewey (1934) saw
imagination as a gateway from which meanings are derived from past
experiences, which add to our understanding of the present. Through these
aesthetic adventures and opened windows of opportunity, habits of mind
form that build community.
These new ways of thinking about, seeing, and acting lead to
experiencing fuller perceptions.
Both Greene and Dewey use the strategy of metaphor in their
writings to aid our creative thinking.
For both, metaphors grow new ways of thinking about, seeing, or
acting on ideas that trigger our aesthetic growth.
Both Dewey’s and Greene’s students engage in experimental
experiences with ideas. As a philosopher,
Maxine Greene spends much of her time looking at the world.
Philosophy is a key ingredient in building a world, but another
aspect is through education, its process and product.
Education does not occur in a vacuum, and it is with this
introduction that Greene (1978) asks difficult questions to help us
expand our thinking about culture, natural flowering of intellect,
social change, and heritage.
She spends much of her time discussing the ramifications of teaching,
giving us a picture of a teacher as someone who reacts “in a variety of
ways.” There are daily
routines, many ways of adjusting, but my favorite statements come when
she quotes Kozol on the classroom, The classroom is the
child’s home for many hours each day.
It is also his place of work.
Therefore, the classroom should reflect happiness, the
protection, the loving guidance of the how, as well as, the efficiency
of the workshop… (Greene, 1978, p. 5) This pictures the
classroom as full of possibilities, with each student rich in potential,
and each teacher a reflective practitioner.
This emphasis on “what should be” is a strong point of her
existentialist argument. She
moves to reduce philosophy in education to its essences.
To summarize, it is, in openings, in
unexplored possibilities, not in the predictable or quantifiable, not in
what is thought of as social control.
For us, education signifies an initiation into new ways of
seeing, hearing, feeling, moving.
It signifies the nurture of a special kind of reflectiveness and
expressiveness, a reaching out for meanings, a learning to learn.
(Greene, 2001, p. 7) Then she moves to
bring the two ideas together, education with philosophy: To do educational
philosophy is to become critically conscious of what is involved in the
complex business of teaching and learning…to clarify the meanings.
(Greene, 2001, p. 7) Greene seeks to
constitute our consciousness so that as educators, we realize ourselves
as philosophers. She seeks
to liberate our consciousness to a state of reflective action. Maxine Greene has
been at the forefront of educational philosophy for more than fifty
years based on her prolific writings, the esteem in which she is held,
the passion she shows, and the passion she inspires in others.
As the founder and director of the Center for Social
Imagination, the Arts and Education at Teachers College, Columbia
University, she has sought to engage in public discussions on
educational reform and the importance of aesthetics education.
Her growth as a philosopher was influenced by many, but for the
purpose of this discussion only a few were discussed.
From Sartre (1958), Maxine Greene developed her sense of
community and cultural influences.
All humankind has value, and it is the moral responsibility of
aesthetics to raise public awareness.
Art has a special power to communicate.
From Merleau-Ponty (1978), Maxine Greene developed her vision of
social imagination, a vision of what ought to be.
From Arendt (1958), Greene adopts the notion of praxis, to
act. Alfred Schutz (1967)
brought to Greene the notion of wide-awakeness, a plane of
consciousness of highest tension originating in an attitude of full
attention to life and its requirements.
John Dewey (1954) influenced Greene for social democracy and for
the freedom to imagine.
Dewey wrote about artwork having special power to communicate among
freedoms without alienation or objectification.
As each of these philosophers and educators influenced Maxine
Greene, she in turn now influences others.
Greene’s legacy consists of doing
philosophy as a part of the praxis of teaching.
In this light teaching is the vocation of vocations, because to
choose teaching is to be about the business of empowerment, the business
of enabling others to choose well. References Arendt, H.
(1951/1973). The origins of totalitarianism.
New York: Harcourt Brace-Jovanovich.
Arendt, H.
(1958/1972). The human condition.
“The Crisis of Education” (Reprint from 1939)
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Arendt, H. (1981).
The life of the mind: Combined 2
volumes in 1. M.
McCarthy, editor. New York:
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Ayers, B.
(2001). To teach: The journey of a teacher.
New York: Teachers College Press. Dewey, J. (1934)
Art as experience.
New York: Penguin Putnam Inc., the Berkley Publishing Group.
Dewey, J. (1954).
The Public and Its Problems.
Columbus, OH: Swallow Press/Ohio University Press. Dewey, J.
(1958). Art as experience.
New York: Perigee Books (original work published in 1934). Dorn, C. M.
(1994). Thinking in art: A
philosophical approach to art education.
Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. d'Entreves, M.
(2006). Hannah Arendt.
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2006 Edition), Edward
N. Zalta (ed.), retrieved on June 1, 2007 from
http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2006/entries/arendt/ Flynn, Thomas.
(2004). Jean-Paul
Sartre , The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Summer 2004 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
retrieved on June 1, 2007 from
http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2004/entries/sartre/ Garrison, J. (1999).
John Dewey, retrieved on June 7, 2007 from
http://www.vusst.hr/ENCYCLOPEDIA/john_dewey.htm Greene, M. (1973).
Teacher as stranger.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc. Greene, M.
(1978). Landscapes of
learning. New York:
Teachers College Press. Greene, M.
(1988). Dialectic of
freedom. New York:
Teachers College Press. Greene, M. (1995a). Art and Imagination: Overcoming a desperate stasis. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(1), 378-382. Greene, M.
(1995b). Releasing the imagination: Essays on education, the arts, and social
change. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass. Greene, M.
(1998). A light in dark times.
New York: Teachers College Press. Greene, M. (2001). Variations on a blue guitar: The Lincoln Center Institute lectures on aesthetic education. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University. Husserl, E. (1939/1973). Experience and judgment. J. S. Churchill and K. Ameriks (Trans.) London: Routledge. Merleau-Ponty, M. (1945/1962. Phenomenology of perception. C. Smith (Trans.). New York: Humanities Press. Merleau-Ponty, M. (1964/1968). The visible and the invisible. A. Lingis (Trans.). Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. Oringel, A.
(2002). The power of one. Teacher Magazine, retrieved
on April 4, 2007 from
http://111.teachermagazien.org/tm/articles/2002/04/01/07greene.h13.html?print=1 Rasheed, S.
(2002). The existential concept of freedom for Maxine Greene: The influence of Sartre and
Merleau-Ponty on Greene’s educational pedagogy. Philosophy of Education Society Yearbook.
West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.
http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/2002/394-rasheed%2002.pdf Sartre, J.P. (1943).
Being and nothingness: A
phenomenological essay on ontology H.E.
Barnes, (Trans.). London: Routledge. Sartre, J. P.
(1956). The psychology of imagination. New York:
Philosophical Library . Sartre, J. P. (1959). The condemned of Altona. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.
|